Module 7

Indigenous Children and Youth

Creating the best possible environment for Indigenous children and youth to develop, grow and succeed is a responsibility we have as a society. Children and youth who have access to healthy food, physical activity, quality education, health care and positive parenting tend to be healthier and better equipped for the challenges they face growing up. The following module describes Indigenous children and youth in Canada, where they live, socio-economic issues they face, family structures they are part of, community supports and challenges, health services they can access, the impact of the environment on their health, and developmental outcomes.

The Module is based on a Determinants of Health Model that examines the impacts of structural, systemic, community and family enablers on individual health and well-being. Creating a healthy, positive start for every Canadian child needs to become a priority – an investment in Indigenous children and youth is an investment in the future.

Innovative Examples

This section provides some innovative examples of programs and interventions that groups and organizations have developed based on data and research. It is hoped that these examples, along with the supporting information found in this module, will provide inspiration for the further creation of initiatives to improve the lives of Indigenous children in Canada.

Suggested Citation and Contributors - Section 5 - Indigenous Children and Youth Early Childhood Development Section of The Health of Canada's Children and Youth: A CICH Profile

The Chair wishes to thank the Expert Advisory Committee and all of the key informants for their time and advice.

Suggested Citation and Contributors

Section 1

A Determinants of Health Model

A Determinants of Health Model is being used to structure the Indigenous Children and Youth Module. The Model provides a cohesive approach to data presentation that takes into account how structures, systems, community and family enablers impact overall child and family well-being to create optimal environments for Indigenous children and youth to grow up healthy.

1.1 A Determinants of Health Model

1.1.1

A Determinants of Health Model

Section 2

Indigenous People of Canada: First Nations, Inuit and Métis

2.1 Indigenous People of Canada: First Nations, Inuit and Métis

2.1.1

Indigenous People of Canada: First Nations

2.1.2

Indigenous People of Canada: Inuit

2.1.3

Indigenous People of Canada: Métis

Section 3

Structural Enablers of Well-Being

Structural enablers of well-being include high level legislation, policies or agreements that enable the development of healthy, positive environments for children, youth and families. Health service delivery agreements, governance and land treaties are examples of structural enablers that can support health and overall community well-being.

3.1 Indigenous Acts, Treaties and Governance

3.1.1

Indigenous Governance: Acts and Treaties

3.1.2

Status and Non-Status - Who qualifies for Status?

3.2 Indigenous Federal/Provincial/Territorial and Self-Governance

3.2.1

Indigenous Federal/Provincial/Territorial Jurisdiction and Self-Governance

3.3 Canadian Indigenous Organizations

3.3.1

Assembly of First Nations

3.3.2

Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami

3.3.3

Métis National Council

3.3.4

Congress of Aboriginal Peoples

3.3.5

Native Women's Association of Canada

3.3.6

National Collaborating Centre for Aboriginal Health

3.3.7

First Nations Child & Family Caring Society of Canada

3.4 Protecting Indigenous Children and Youth

3.4.1

Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples

3.4.2

Jordan's Principle

3.4.3

Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC) and the National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation (NCTR)

Section 4

Systemic Enablers of Well-Being

System enablers of well-being relate to systems (for example, the education, health, child welfare, justice systems) that provide needed services. Schools, hospitals, mental health programs, well-baby clinics and Head Start programs are examples of system components that support and enable well-being. Strong, community-focused, accessible systems that support families and individuals are instrumental to the development of healthy environments for Indigenous children and youth.

4.1 Health

4.1.1

Health – an overview of Indigenous Health in Canada

4.1.2

Indigenous Health Service Delivery

4.1.3

Mental Health Services - Access to health services

4.1.4

Mental health interventions for Indigenous children and youth based in family, school, community and land-based settings

4.1.5

Health Promotion and Prevention - link to government services

4.1.6

Nutrition North Canada

4.1.7

Building a health system that honours diversity and provides culturally safe services

4.2 Education

4.2.1

History of Indigenous Education

4.2.2

Provision of Education

4.2.3

Provision of Education – National Program Guidelines

4.2.4

Culturally Relevant Education – Head Start

4.2.5

Culturally Relevant Education – Language Immersion for Indigenous Children and Youth

4.2.6

Culturally Relevant Education – Post Secondary

4.3 Child Welfare

4.3.1

Child Welfare Laws

4.3.2

Models of Indigenous Child Welfare

4.3.3

Truth and Reconciliation - Child Welfare

4.3.4

Human Rights Decision - Child Welfare

4.4 Housing

4.4.1

Indigenous Housing - Introduction

4.4.2

First Nations Housing On Reserve

4.4.3

Métis Housing

4.4.4

Inuit Housing

4.4.5

Urban Indigenous Households

4.4.6

Innovative Initiatives to Improve Housing Conditions – Education

4.4.7

Innovative Initiatives to Improve Housing Conditions – Home Building Construction

4.4.8

Innovative Initiatives to Improve Housing Conditions – Federal Initiatives

4.5 Justice

4.5.1

Indigenous Peoples and the Justice System

4.5.2

4.5.3

Changes and Innovative Examples

4.5.4

Federal Initiatives

4.6 Environment

4.6.1

A new understanding of environmental health

4.6.2

Convention on the Rights of the Child

4.6.3

Precautionary Principle

4.6.4

Environmental Public Health Program

4.6.5

Climate Change

4.6.6

Innovation in Research

4.6.7

Innovative Example – My Word: Storytelling a Digital Media Lab, a centre for northern digital storytelling

Section 5

Individual Health and Well-Being - The Early Years

Pregnancy and the early years (ages 0-5) are a time of extreme growth and development for children. Prenatally, young children can be exposed to influences that impact their birth outcomes – making education and care of pregnant mothers critical. Equally important are the environments in which children grow up. Children with access to healthy food, physical activity, quality education, health care and positive parenting tend to be healthier and better equipped for the challenges they face growing up. The content for this section was produced for the Public Health Agency of Canada by the Canadian Institute for Child Health in collaboration with the Canadian Council on Social Determinants of Health. The views expressed herein do not necessarily represent the views of…

5.1 Demographic Information

5.1.1

Percentage of population that are < 5 years of age, by Indigenous identity, Canada, 2016

5.1.2

Percentage of all children 0 to 4 years who are First Nations, Métis and Inuit, Canada and by province and territory, 2016

5.1.3

Number of children per woman (total fertility rate) by Indigenous identity, Canada, 2010-2011

5.1.4

Age at first birth among First Nations, Métis and Inuit women, 15 to 49 years, Canada, 2012

5.1.5

Living arrangements of children from birth to 5 years of age by Indigenous group, Canada, 2016

5.1.6

Proportion of Indigenous People who reported Indigenous language knowledge by Indigenous group, Canada, 1996 Census, 2006 Census, 2011 National Household Survey, 2016 Census

5.1.7

Distribution of population with knowledge of Indigenous languages, Canada, 2016

5.2 Family Income, Education and Employment

5.2.1

Percentage of children and youth under 18 years of age living in low income, by Indigenous identity, Canada, 2015

5.2.2

Proportion of First Nations children living off reserve under age 6 and Non-Indigenous children under age 6 in low-income families, by rural and urban, Canada, 2005

5.2.3

Proportion of First Nations children living off reserve under 6 years of age and Non-Indigenous children under 6 years of age living off reserve in low-income* families, by registered Indian status and CMA** vs non-CMA area, Canada, 2005

5.2.4

Percentage of Métis and Non-Indigenous children under 6 years living in low-income families, by rural and urban, Canada, 2005

5.2.5

Proportion of Urban Métis and Non-Indigenous children under 6 years living in low-income* families, by CMA** vs non-CMA, Canada, 2005

5.2.6

Proportion of Inuit children under 6 years of age outside of Inuit Nunangat and non-Indigenous children under 6 years of age living in CMAs who were living in low-income families, Canada, 2005

5.2.7

Percent of First Nations households with children, by household income, Canada, 2008/2010

5.2.8

First Nations parents of children under age 12, by highest level of education achieved, 2002/2003 and 2008/2010

5.2.9

Percentage of mothers/female caregivers and fathers/male caregivers of First Nations children under age 11 by employment status, Canada, 2013/2015

5.3 Healthy Eating and Food Security

5.3.1

Consumption of selected healthy food groups among First Nations children living off reserve, Métis children and Inuit children, age 2 to 5, Canada, 2006

5.3.2

Consumption of selected unhealthy food groups among First Nations children living off reserve, Métis children and Inuit children, household population aged 2 to 5, Canada, 2006

5.3.3

Consumption of traditional or country foods among First Nations living off reserve, Métis and Inuit children, age 2 to 5, Canada, 2006

5.3.4

Proportion of households reporting food insecurity in the last year, Indigenous (excluding reserves) and non-Indigenous, Canada, 2004

5.3.5

Proportion of Indigenous households (excluding reserves) reporting food insecurity in the last year, by presence of children, family type and income, Canada, 2004

5.3.6

Household food security status for First Nations children under age 18, Canada, 2008/2010

5.3.7

Distribution of Inuit children age 3 to 5 by food security status, Nunavut, Canada, 2007/2008

5.3.8

Percentage of Inuit children aged 3 to 5 years in severely and moderately food insecure households who experienced different aspects of food insecurity, Nunavut, Canada, 2007/2008

5.3.9

Promoting Healthy Nutrition and Physical Activity: The Inuit Super Hero Storybook Series

5.4 Housing

5.4.1

Percentage of children under 15 years of age living in housing in need of major repair, by Indigenous Identity, Canada, 2016

5.4.2

Percentage of children under 15 living in unsuitable housing, by Indigenous identity, Canada, 2016

5.4.3

Percentage of First Nations children living in crowded homes, Canada, 2002/2003, 2008/2010 and 2013/2015

5.5 Community Well-Being

5.5.1

Percentage of parents or guardians of children under age 6 who responded 'excellent or very good' when asked how they felt about members of their community being actively involved, by Indigenous identity, Canada, 2006

5.5.2

Percentage of parents or guardians of children under age 6 who responded "excellent" or "very good" when asked how they feel about the statement "my community has good schools, nursery schools and early childhood education programs", by Indigenous identity, Canada, 2006

5.5.3

Feelings about community, by primary caregivers of Inuit children under age 6, not including reserves, Canada, 2006

5.5.4

Percentage of Inuit, First Nations living off reserve and Métis children under age 6 who participated in select traditional activities, Canada, 2006

5.5.5

Community members involved in helping First Nations children 3 to 5 years of age living on reserve understand their culture, as cited by primary caregivers, Canada, 2008/2010

5.5.6

Percentage of First Nations children living on reserve whose parents helped then understand culture, by parental education and income, Canada, 2008/2010

5.5.7

Percentage of caregivers of First Nations children under 11 years of age living on reserve who feel traditional cultural events are 'very important', Canada, 2002/2003, 2008/2010 and 2013/2015

5.5.8

Percentage of primary caregivers of First Nations children on reserve who felt that having their children learn a First Nations language was 'very important' or 'somewhat important', Canada, 2002/2003, 2008/2010 and 2013/2015

5.5.9

Innovation in Language – Tools for Learning Indigenous Languages

5.6 Family Well-Being

5.6.1

Frequency of talk or playtime for Inuit children under age 6, for five minutes or more, by relationship to child, Canada, 2006

5.6.2

Frequency of talk or play time for Métis children under age 6, for five minutes or more, by relationship to child, Canada, 2006

5.6.3

Frequency of talk or play time for First Nations children under age 6 living off reserve, for five minutes or more, by relationship to child, Canada, 2006

5.6.4

Distribution of parents/guardians of First Nations children under age 6 living off reserve on their answer to the question "How would you rate your feelings about:", Canada, 2006

5.6.5

Distribution of parents/guardians of Inuit children under age 6 on their feelings about various aspects of home and daily life, Canada, 2006

5.6.6

Distribution of parents/guardians of Métis children under age 6 on their feelings about various aspects of home and daily life, Canada, 2006

5.6.7

Percentage of primary caregivers of First Nations children under 11 years of age living on reserve, by reported access to parental support, Canada, 2013/2015

5.6.8

Percentage of First Nations children under 11 years of age living on reserve who have family members that attended Indian Residential Schools, Canada, 2013/2015

5.7 Maternal Behaviours

5.7.1

Percentage of First Nations mothers living on reserve who reported smoking during pregnancy, Canada, 2002/2003 and 2008/2010

5.7.2

Proportion of First Nations mothers living on reserve who smoked during pregnancy, by maternal age at birth, Canada, 2008/2010

5.7.3

Proportion of First Nations mothers living on reserve who smoked during pregnancy, by maternal education, Canada, 2008/2010

5.7.4

Proportion of First Nations mothers living on reserve who smoked during pregnancy, by annual household income, Canada, 2008/2010

5.7.5

Proportion of women initiating breastfeeding, by age and Indigenous identity, Canada, 2007-2010

5.7.6

Proportion of women exclusively breastfeeding for at least 6 months, by age and Indigenous identity, Canada, 2007-2010

5.7.7

Breastfeeding duration of First Nations mothers living on reserve by maternal age, Canada, 2008-2010

5.8 Physical Health

5.8.1

Self-rated health status (good, very good or excellent) among Indigenous and non-Indigenous children under 6 years of age, Canada, 2006

5.8.2

Rates of low and high birth weight by Indigenous identity compared to the Canadian population, Canada, 2006

5.8.3

Child`s birth weight, by maternal smoking during pregnancy and others smoking in the household, First Nations living on reserve, Canada, 2008/2010

5.8.4

Rates of chronic conditions, children under 6, by Indigenous identity, Canada, 2006

5.8.5

Chronic health conditions of First Nations children (0 to 11) living on reserve, Canada, 2002/2003 and 2008/10

5.8.6

Percentage of First Nations children age 0 to 11 years living on reserve with diabetes who sought treatment for the condition, Canada, 2002/2003 and 2008/2010

5.8.7

Proportion of First Nations children (age 2 to 11) living on reserve who are normal weight/underweight, overweight and obese, 2002/2003 and 2008/2010

5.8.8

Healthy bodyweight in Inuit children 3 to 5 years of age, by gender, Canada, 2007/2008

5.8.9

First Nations children 0 to 11 years of age living on reserve with asthma, by gender, Canada, 2008/2010

5.8.10

Percentage of First Nations children living on reserve age 0 to 11 who received treatment for asthma, Canada, 2002/2003 and 2008/2010

5.8.11

Health centre/hospital visits in the last 12 months for respiratory illness among Inuit children aged 3 to 5 years, Nunavut, Canada, 2007/2008

5.8.12

Prevalence of early childhood caries (ECC) among First Nations children living on reserve, by age, Canada, 2002/2003 and 2008/2010

5.8.13

Risk ratio of early childhood caries (ECC) among First Nations children 0 to 11 years of age living on reserve, by beverage, Canada, 2008/2010

5.8.14

Health determinants associated with early childhood caries (ECC) among First Nations children living on reserve, Canada, 2008/2010

5.8.15

Proportion of First Nations children 0 to 11 years living on reserve, by dental treatment needs according to primary caregivers' perceptions, Canada, 2002/2003 and 2008/2010

5.8.16

Percentage of primary caregivers of First Nations children 0 to 11 years of age living on reserve who indicated their child was injured in the past 12 months, by type of injury, Canada, 2008/2010

5.8.17

Proportion of Indigenous children age 0 to 5 living off reserve diagnosed with FASD, Canada and by select provinces, 2006

5.8.18

Estimates of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) and Fetal Alcohol Effects (FAE) in Canada, various years

5.9 Education and Child Care

5.9.1

Percentage of Indigenous children age 2 to 5 who hear stories, read books and count at least once a day, Canada, 2006

5.9.2

Percentage of parents or guardians of Indigenous children under age 6 who responded 'excellent' or 'very good' when asked how they feel about the statement "my community has good schools, nursery schools and early childhood education programs", Canada, 2006

5.9.3

Percentage of First Nations children under age 6 living on reserve who attend an early childhood education program designed for First Nations children, by ability to communicate, Canada, 2013/2015

5.9.4

Percentage of children under 6 years of age in some kind of child care arrangement, by Indigenous identity, Canada, 2006

5.9.5

Percentage of Indigenous children under 6 years of age in child care, by type of care, Canada, 2006

5.9.6

Child care arrangements, Indigenous children under 6 years of age, not including reserves, Canada, 2006

5.9.7

Percentage of First Nations children living on reserve receiving child care, Canada, 2002/2003 and 2008/2010

5.10 Child Welfare

5.10.1

Indigenous children in out-of-home care, by select provinces, Canada, 2011

5.10.2

Number of First Nations children living on reserve in care of the child welfare system and average maintenance costs per child, Canada, 1998 to 2016

5.10.3

Percentage of First Nations children in care on reserve, by placement type, Canada, 2006 to 2016

5.10.4

Jordan's Principle

5.11 Environmental Risks and Conditions

5.11.1

Convention on the Rights of the Child

5.11.2

Precautionary Principle

5.11.3

Exposure to Environmental Toxins

5.11.4

Impact of climate change on young children

5.11.5

Impacts of climate change in Northern Canada

5.11.6

Environmental Contaminants and Neurobehavioural Effects

5.12 Consolidated Results

5.12.1

Section Summary: Individual Health and Well-Being - The Early Years

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Section 6

Individual Health and Well-Being - Middle Childhood

During the middle-years (ages 6-14), children learn important life skills such as problem solving and decision-making. These are the years that children enter school and establish new relationships with peers and adults. These new relationships, along with established family relationships, help develop a sense of self and belonging that contributes greatly to overall health and well-being.

6.1 Demographics

6.1.1

Percentage of all Canadian children aged 5 to 14 years who are Indigenous, Canada and the provinces/territories, 2016

6.1.2

Percentage of all Indigenous children aged 5 to 14 that are First Nations, Métis, Inuit and multiple Indigenous identities, Canada, 2016

6.1.3

Ability of Indigenous children aged 6 to 14 years to speak and understand Indigenous language, by Indigenous identity, Canada, 2012

6.1.4

Importance of speaking and understanding an Indigenous language, among children and youth aged 6 to 14 years, by Indigenous identity, Canada, 2012

6.2 Income and Employment

6.2.1

Percentage of Canadian children and youth under 18 living in poverty*, by Indigenous identity, Canada, 2015

6.2.2

Percentage of mothers/female caregivers and fathers/male caregivers of First Nations children under age 11 by employment status, Canada, 2013/2015

6.3 Healthy Eating and Security

6.3.1

Percentage of Indigenous households with children aged 6 to 14 years reporting low and very low food security, by Indigenous identity, Canada, 2012

6.3.2

Percentage of First Nations children aged 6 to 11 years living in First Nations communities who consume specific food items by frequency of consumption, Canada, 2008/2010

6.3.3

Percentage of Canadian children and youth aged 12 to 24 years who eat fruits and vegetables at least 5 times a day, by Indigenous identity, Canada, 2007-2010 and 2011-2014

6.4 Housing

6.4.1

Percentage of children under 15 living in housing in need of major repair, by Indigenous identity, Canada, 2016

6.4.2

Percentage of First Nations children* aged 0 to 11 years living in crowded housing, by type of community, Canada, 2015-2016

6.5 Community Well-Being

6.5.1

Percentage of Indigenous children and youth aged 6 to 14 years who have a regular medical doctor, by Indigenous identity, Canada, 2012

6.5.2

Percentage of children and youth 6 to 14 years of age who needed health care in the previous 12 months but did not receive it, by Indigenous identity, Canada, 2012

6.5.3

Percentage of children and youth aged 6 to 14 years who have contacted a dental professional in the last 3 years, by Indigenous identity, Canada, 2012

6.5.4

Percentage of Indigenous children and youth aged 6 to 14 years who take part in cultural activities, by Indigenous identity, Canada, 2006

6.6 Family Well-Being

6.6.1

Percentage of Indigenous children and youth aged 5 to 14 years who live with two parents or a lone parent, by Indigenous identity, 2011

6.6.2

Percentage of First Nations children* aged 0 to 11 years who had at least one parent or at least one grandparent who attended a Residential School, Canada, 2015/2016

6.6.3

Percentage of primary caregivers of First Nations children under 11 years of age living on reserve, by reported access to parental support, Canada, 2013/2015

6.6.4

First Nations parents of children under age 12, by highest level of education achieved, 2002/2003 and 2008/2010

6.7 Health and Well-Being

6.7.1

Proportion of Indigenous children aged 6 to 11 with long term health problems, by Indigenous identity, Canada, 2012

6.7.2

Percentage of Indigenous children aged 6 to 11 years with asthma and allergies, by Indigenous identity, Canada, 2012

6.7.3

Percentage of Indigenous children aged 6 to 11 years with learning disabilities, attention deficit disorders, and speech or language difficulties, by Indigenous identity, Canada, 2012

6.7.4

Percentage of Indigenous children aged 6 to 11 years with emotional, psychological or nervous difficulties, by Indigenous identity*, Canada, 2012

6.7.5

Self-perceived health among Indigenous children and youth aged 6 to 14 years, by Indigenous identity, Canada, 2012

6.7.6

Percentage of First Nations children* aged 0 to 11 years who were diagnosed with a mental health condition or disorder, by type of condition or disorder, Canada, 2015/2016

6.7.7

Percentage of First Nations children* aged 0 to 11 years who were diagnosed with a mental health condition or disorder and are undergoing treatment, by type of condition or disorder, Canada, 2015/2016

6.7.8

Percentage of First Nations children living on reserve aged 6 to 11 years with dental caries, Canada, 2008/2010

6.7.9

Proportion of First Nations children 6 to 11 years living on reserve, by dental treatment needs according to primary caregiver perceptions, Canada, 2008/2010

6.7.10

Proportion of First Nations children (age 2 to 11) living on reserve who are normal weight/underweight, overweight and obese, 2002/2003 and 2008/2010

6.7.11

Percentage of First Nations children and youth aged 6 to 11 years who are physically active, moderately inactive or inactive, Canada, 2008/2010

6.7.12

Percentage of primary caregivers of First Nations children 0 to 11 years of age living on reserve who indicated their child was injured in the past 12 months, by type of injury, Canada, 2008/2010

6.8 Child Welfare

6.8.1

Indigenous children in out-of-home care, by selected provinces, Canada, 2011

6.8.2

Number of First Nations children living on reserve in the care of the child welfare system and average maintenance costs per child, Canada, 1998 to 2016

6.8.3

Percentage of First Nations children in care on reserve, by placement type, Canada, 2006 to 2016

6.9 Education

6.9.1

First Nations schools offering cultural and language programs, by type of program, Canada, 2011

6.9.2

Percentage of schools on reserve that have facilities for physical activity, Canada, 2011

6.9.3

Percentage of First Nations schools on reserve that had infrastructure issues, Canada, 2011

6.9.4

Percentage of First Nations schools on reserve that had specific supports, Canada, 2011

6.10 Environmental Risks and Conditions

6.10.1

Convention on the Rights of the Child - Right to a clean environment

6.10.2

Precautionary Principle

6.10.3

Exposure to Environmental Toxins

6.10.4

Percentage of First Nations communities lacking some level of water in their houses, Canada, 2011

Section 7

Individual Health and Well-Being - Youth

In Indigenous communities, youth is loosely defined as 15-25 years of age. Indigenous youth contribute to their families and communities as students, employees and volunteers. This is a time of incredible change as individuals transition from children to adults. Youth need the guidance, support and respect of caring communities and families as they navigate this important developmental stage.